一．慣用法的基本規(guī)則規(guī)則
1：?jiǎn)螖?shù)名詞構(gòu)成所有格加's。
- Burns's poems
- one's rights
- somebody else's umbrella
但對(duì)一些以-es 和-is 結(jié)尾的古老的特有名詞，只需加‘（如Jesus’），或?qū)懗扇鐃he laws of Moses 的形式。代詞所有格（hers, theirs, its, yours 等) 沒(méi)有撇號(hào)，但不定代詞（one，somebody else 等）的所有格需要加's。
2：插入語(yǔ)應(yīng)位于兩個(gè)逗號(hào)之間。
日期通常包含插入的詞或數(shù)字，標(biāo)點(diǎn)方式如下：February to July, 1972 / April 6, 1956/ Wednesday, November 13, 1929.
但若按日- 月- 年表達(dá)，習(xí)慣上日- 月后的逗號(hào)省略，如：6 April 1956。
縮寫(xiě)詞etc.（等等）、i.e.（即是）和e.g.（例如），縮寫(xiě)的學(xué)位名稱(chēng)及至于名字后表示頭銜的詞應(yīng)按插入語(yǔ)進(jìn)行標(biāo)點(diǎn)。如：Letters, packages, etc., should go there. / Horance Fulsome, Ph. D., presided. / Rachel Simonds, Attorney.在名詞及表示其身份的限制性同位語(yǔ)之間不應(yīng)該用逗號(hào)隔開(kāi)。如：William the conqueror / the novelist John Fowle。
非限制性定語(yǔ)從句具有插入語(yǔ)性質(zhì)，應(yīng)加逗號(hào)，限制性的不應(yīng)該加。
定語(yǔ)從句、分詞短語(yǔ)和同位語(yǔ)是否需要加逗號(hào)分開(kāi)，都是看是限制性還是非限制性。
短語(yǔ)或從句位于主語(yǔ)之前，加逗號(hào)。
The audience, which had an first been indifferent, became more and more interested.The candidate who best meets these requirements will obtain the place.
3：引導(dǎo)獨(dú)立分句的連詞前需用逗號(hào)。
The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.（有關(guān)這座城市的早期文獻(xiàn)記載已經(jīng)散失，因此它最初幾年的情況已無(wú)法知曉。）
The situation is perilous, but there is one chance of escape.( 盡管情況十分危急，仍有逃跑的機(jī)會(huì)。)但分句主語(yǔ)相同時(shí)，but 前用逗號(hào)，而聯(lián)系緊密的and 前不需要。
I have heard his arguments, but am still unconvinced. / He has had several years' experience and is thoroughly competent.
And is the least specific of connectives. Used between independent clauses, it indicates only that a relation exists between them without defining that relation.
As the early records of the city have disappeared, the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.
Although the situation is perilous, there is still one chance of escape.
4：不要用逗號(hào)連接獨(dú)立分句。
語(yǔ)法上完整而又不需要用連詞連接的分句構(gòu)成一個(gè)并列復(fù)合句時(shí)，用分號(hào)，或者直接寫(xiě)成兩個(gè)句子。
It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before dark.
但若在兩個(gè)分句中加入連接詞，就用逗號(hào).
It is nearly half past five , and we cannot reach town before dark.Stevenson's romances are entertaining, for they are full of existing adventures.
若第二個(gè)分句前加入的不是連接詞而是如accordingly、besides、then、therefore 和thus 之類(lèi)的副詞，仍然需要用分號(hào)。
I had never been in that place before; besides, it was dark as a tomb.
分號(hào)使用例外：分句短且形式相似，或者固定搭配和表達(dá)，用逗號(hào)更適宜。
Man proposes, God disposes.（謀事在人，成事在天。）
Here today, gone tomorrow（. 來(lái)也匆匆，去也匆匆。）
5：位于句首的分詞短語(yǔ)必須與句子的主語(yǔ)相關(guān)。
Walking slowly down the road, he saw a woman accompanied by two children.
If the writer wishes to make walking refer to the woman, he must recast thesentence:
He saw a woman accompanied by two children, walking slowly down the road.
On arriving in Chicago, his friends met him at the station.
Young and inexperienced, the task seemed easy to me.
Without a friend to counsel him, the temptation proved irresistible.
可修改為：
When he arrived in Chicago, his friends met him at the station.
Young and inexperienced, I thought the task easy.
Without a friend to counsel him, he found the temptation irresistible.
二、寫(xiě)作的基本原則
6：文章的格局一經(jīng)選定，千萬(wàn)不能偏離。
所有的文章都有一個(gè)骨架，作者將有血有肉的內(nèi)容充實(shí)進(jìn)去。作者對(duì)文章的格局了解越清楚，成功的希望就越大。
7：把段落作為文章的單位。
每一個(gè)段落的起始都是向讀者表明：論述已進(jìn)入一個(gè)新的階段。在對(duì)話(huà)中，每一段話(huà)，即使只有一個(gè)詞，通常都單獨(dú)列為一段。當(dāng)既有敘述又有對(duì)話(huà)，如何使用這條規(guī)則，最好從仔細(xì)編校的小說(shuō)實(shí)例中加以琢磨。分段既要符合邏輯，又要賞心悅目，大段大段的文章令人望而生畏，太多零散小段亦會(huì)分散讀者的注意力（看起來(lái)好像流水賬或廣告）。
8：使用主動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)。
主動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)通常比被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)更直接，更有力，比較一下說(shuō)法：
- Dead leaves covered the ground.
- There were a great number of dead leaves lying on theground.
- He soon repented his words.
- It was not long before he was very sorry that he had said what he had.
- Failing health compelled him to leave college.
- The reason he left college was that his health became impaired.
句子越有力，通常越短。因此，簡(jiǎn)潔時(shí)生動(dòng)有力的副產(chǎn)品。
避免使用多重被動(dòng)：
Gold was not allowed to be exported.
It was forbidden to export gold.或者 The export of gold was prohibited.He has been proved to have been seen entering the building.
It has been proved that he was seen to enter the building.
切勿使用動(dòng)詞的名詞形式作為主語(yǔ)，然后用被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)。
Mobilization of the army was rapidly carried out.
The army was rapidly mobilized.
A survey of this region was made in 1900.
This region was surveyed in 1900.
Confirmation of these reports cannot be obtained.
These reports cannot be confirmed.
9：話(huà)要從正面說(shuō)。
“肯定”要力求明確。避免使用沉悶單調(diào)、吞吞吐吐、曖昧不清的語(yǔ)言。即使表達(dá)的是否定的概念，也最好用肯定形式來(lái)表達(dá)。
比如：not honest ─ dishonest not important ─ trifling did not remember ─ forgot didnot have much confidence
in ─ distrusted.in ─ distrusted.
把否定和肯定對(duì)偶地放在一起能起到更為有力的效果。
如：Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for yourcountry.
10：省略不必要的詞。
省略不必要的詞，例如：
The question as to whether > whether (the question whether)
There is no doubt but that > no doubt (doubtless)
Used for fuel purposes > used for fuel He is a man who > heIn a hasty manner > hastily
The fact可以更具具體情況改成以下表達(dá)：
owing to the fact that > since (because)
In spite of the fact that > though (although)
Call your attention to the fact that > notify you
I was unaware of the fact that > I was unaware that (did not know)
The fact that he had not succeeded >his failure
在表達(dá)一個(gè)較為復(fù)雜意思的時(shí)候，將一系列較短的句子或獨(dú)立短句合并為一個(gè)句子可以幫助精簡(jiǎn)行文，例如
Macbeth was very ambitious. This led him to wish to become king of Scotland.The witches told him that this wish of this would come true. The king of Scotland at this time was Duncan. Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth murdered Duncan. He was thus enabled to succeed Duncan as king (51 words)
Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth achieved his ambition and realized the prediction of the witches by murdering Duncan and becoming king of Scotland in his place (26 worlds)
11：把相關(guān)的詞放在一起。
形式上的相似能讓讀者比較容易辨認(rèn)出內(nèi)容和功能上的相似。把意思相關(guān)詞和詞組放在一起，把不甚相關(guān)的詞和詞組隔開(kāi)。注意比較以下表達(dá)：
Wordsworth, in the fifth book of The Excursion, gives a minute description of this church.
In the fifth book of The Excursion, Wordsworth gives a minute description ofthis church.
Cast iron, when treated in a converter, is changed into steel.
By treatment in a converter, cast iron is changed into steel.
12：要強(qiáng)調(diào)的詞或詞組，在句中的恰當(dāng)位置通常是句末。
- Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since that time, though it hasadvanced in many other ways.
- Since that time, humanity has advanced in many ways, but it has hardly advanced in fortitude.
- This steel is principally used for making razors, because of its hardness.
- Because of its hardness, this steel is used principally for making razors.
位于這個(gè)強(qiáng)調(diào)位置上的詞或詞組通常是邏輯上的謂語(yǔ)——即句中提示未知信息的部分。
- 掉尾句之所以有力，是因?yàn)樗怀隽酥骶洌?br />
- Wish these hopes and in this belief, I would urge you, laying aside all hindrance, thrusting away all private aims, to devote yourself unswervingly and unflinchingly to the vigorous and successful prosecution of this war.
- 句中另一強(qiáng)調(diào)的未知是句首。句中除主語(yǔ)外的任一成分置于句首時(shí)，都受到強(qiáng)調(diào)：
- Deceit or treachery he could never forgive.
三．常錯(cuò)用詞
Consider. Not followed by as when it means“ believe to be”.“ I consider him thoroughly competent.” Compare, “The lecturer considered Cromwell First as soldier an soldier and second as administrator”, where“ considered” means“ examined” or“ discussed.”
However. In the meaning nevertheless, not to come first in its sentence or clause. The roads were almost impassable.
However, we at last succeeded in reaching camp.
The roads were almost impassable. At last, however, we succeeded in reaching camp.
When however comes first, in means in whatever way or to whatever extent.However you advise him, he will probably do as he thinks best.
Nature. Often simply redundant, used like character.
Acts of a hostile nature > Hostile acts State.
Not to be used as a mere substitute for say, remark, express clearly While.
Avoid the indiscriminate use of this word for and, but, and although.
The office and salesrooms are on the ground floor, while the rest of the building is devoted to manufacturing. The office and salesrooms are on the ground floor; the rest of the building is devoted to manufacturing.
在不會(huì)引起歧義的情況下，可以用來(lái) although 的意思。
While I desire his energy, I wish it were employed in a better cause.
In general, the writer will do well to use while with strict literalness, in the sense of during the time that.
